A CHRONOLOGY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN MILITARY SERVICE From the Colonial Era through the Antebellum Period

Illustration from the 1855 edition of "Colored Patriots of the American Revolution" by W.C. Nell shows Crispus Attucks, the "first martyr of the American Revolution" fired on by British soldiers in Boston on March 5, 1770.

Engraving of the Boston Masacre by Paul Revere, 1770

Crispus Attucks' grave

Minuteman statue, Lexington, MA

Battle of Bunker Hill

Black sailor

Land grant to Austin Dabney

Benedict Arnold

Surrender at Yorktown

1639 The Virginia House of Burgesses passed the first legislation to exclude blacks from the militia.

1652 Because of the possibility of Indian attack, a Massachusetts law required all blacks, Scotsmen, and Native Americans who lived with or were servants of English settlers to participate in military training.

1656 Massachusetts prohibited blacks and Indians from military service because of white fears about possible uprisings.

1660 Connecticut passed a law barring African Americans and Native Americans from military service. By the end of the 17^th century, all of the colonies had enacted similar laws.

1689 During King William’s War, France and its Indian allies threatened England’s North American colonies. Black militia fought and died in this imperial conflict. They also served later in Queen Anne’s War (1702-13), the second of three major confrontations between the French and English for control of North America.

1703 The South Carolina assembly offered to free any slave who captured or killed any Native Americans considered hostile to the colony.

1705 The Virginia Assembly passed legislation preventing "Negro[es], mulatto[s], or Indian[s]" from holding civil, military or ecclesiastical office.

1707 An early South Carolina law required militia captains "to enlist, traine [sic] up and bring into the field for each white, one able slave armed with a gun or lance."

1708 Charles Town, South Carolina, employed "slave cowboys" to help protect the settlement from Indian attack.

1715 South Carolina used slaves to help fight during the Yamasee War.

1729 Armed blacks helped to defend French Louisiana from Indian attack.

1735 Free black militia officers in Louisiana led black troops during an Indian war.

1747 The South Carolina assembly provided for the use of black troops in the event of danger or emergency, and authorized the enlistment of 50 percent of all able-bodied slaves between the ages of 16 and 20.

1756-1763 Black soldiers served during the French and Indian War, the North American colonial struggle which pitted the French and Spanish against the British. Barzillai Lew fought during this conflict as a member of a Massachusetts militia company. He later saw action at the Battle of Bunker Hill during the American Revolution.

5 March 1770 Crispus Attucks, a runaway slave turned Jacktar, and four other colonists were killed during the so-called Boston Massacre, in which British soldiers fired on unarmed men and boys who were causing a disturbance. He was the first African American killed during the American Revolution.

1774 Massachusetts began enlisting blacks in its militia companies.

1774 General Thomas Gage rejected the petition of Boston blacks, who offered to fight for the British in exchange for their freedom.

1774 New York offered to emancipate any slaves who served in the militia for 3 years.

1775 The Massachusetts Committee of Safety directed that only free blacks could serve in the militia.

19 April 1775 Blacks took part in the Battle of Lexington and Concord. The first armed clash between England and her colonists in North America was sparked by the dispatch of 700 British soldiers from the Boston garrison. Sent to seize colonial arms and possibly arrest rebel leaders, the "redcoats" encountered armed resistance instead. Pomp Blackman and Prince Estabrook were two of the black Minutemen who took part in the event immortalized as the "shot heard ‘round the world." Estabrook was killed during the fighting.

May 1775 Black patriots helped Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys take Fort Ticonderoga, New York, by surprise.

15 June 1775 The Continental Congress chose George Washington to head the newly established Continental Army. Shortly after assuming command, Washington ordered his officers not to recruit black troops. He later rescinded this order to allow the enlistment of free blacks. Congress subsequently approved this decision in 1776.

17 June 1775 Several black soldiers (most notably Peter Salem and Salem Poor) helped defend Breed’s Hill in the Battle of Bunker Hill on Charlestown Heights overlooking Boston Harbor. Although tactically a British victory, this confrontation was psychologically significant for the colonists. The patriots met British regulars and successfully held on to their position until they ran out of ammunition.

July 1775 American General Horatio Gates ordered his officers not to recruit "any deserter from the Ministerial army, nor any stroller, negro, or vagabond, or persons suspected of being an enemy to the liberty of America, nor any under eighteen years of age."

26 September 1775 Edward Rutledge proposed that all blacks in the Continental Army be discharged. Voted down by northern delegates, the issue cropped up again in October 1775, because of white fears that the Army was becoming a refuge for runaway slaves. At that time, a committee agreed to exclude blacks (especially slaves) from the service. However, after northern officers and soldiers strongly protested the measure, Washington reversed this decision in December 1775 to permit free blacks to serve.

November 1775 The "Ethiopian Regiment" was formed in Virginia after about 800 blacks responded to the royal governor’s offer of freedom to all male slaves who joined the British forces.

28 November 1775 The Continental Congress formally established the Continental Navy, after authorizing the construction of two warships on 13 October to defend against the British fleet. The approved rules regulating the new military service allowed both free and enslaved blacks to enlist.

5 December 1775 The Massachusetts Bay General Court officially commended Salem Poor for his service as "a brave and gallant soldier."

1776 Virginia opened its militia to all free males regardless of race. Blacks were initially used as pioneers (i.e., members of military construction crews), drummers, and fifers.

1776 Early in the Revolutionary War, South Carolina passed a law declaring the death penalty for any bondsman who joined the British army or navy. As the war progressed, all of the southern states increased patrols, established local guard units, removed slaves from proximity to British forces, and imposed severe punishments on would-be defectors. But these actions could not prevent several thousand slaves from seeking service and freedom with the British.

21 February 1776 Washington issued orders reinforcing his decision to keep slaves from serving in the Continental Army.

26 September 1776 The British in New York City executed Captain Nathan Hale of Connecticut for spying. The hangman was a loyalist slave named Bill Richmond, who later gained fame as a boxing champion in Europe.

1777 After it was discovered that slaves claiming to be free men had enlisted in the militia, the Virginia assembly passed a law prohibiting blacks from joining without a certificate of freedom.

1777 As the war with England dragged on, Congress began to assign troop quotas for each state. Consequently, the need for manpower became so great that the states began recruiting more blacks. Additional black enlistments resulted from the use of a substitution system in which those men wishing to avoid service found it easier and less expensive to provide a black substitute. Most northern states and Maryland also allowed slaves to serve.

1777 The Rhode Island assembly passed a resolution allowing "every able-bodied negro, mulatto or Indian man slave" to enlist in two segregated battalions led by white officers. Among the incentives offered to recruits were equal pay and freedom.

11 September 1777 After the Battle of the Brandywine fought on this date, Edward Hector, a black soldier who served in the Third Pennsylvania Artillery, was awarded a cash bonus for bravery.

October 1777 The General Assembly of Connecticut authorized the selectmen of any town to free any suitable slaves or indentured servants who enlisted in the state militia.

1777 The Rhode Island assembly authorized the enlistment of slaves in the militia. Those blacks who served for the duration of the war would be emancipated.

April 1778 Thomas Kench, an artillery regiment soldier, wrote to the Massachusetts assembly to urge the enlistment of blacks in segregated units. He believed that the "ambition [of the all-black units] would entirely be to outdo the white men in every measure that the fortunes of war calls upon a soldier to endure." However, Massachusetts authorities voted to continue the state’s practice of "taking negroes in our service, intermixed with the white men."

28 June 1778 During the Battle of Monmouth fought in New Jersey on this date, Continental troops, including 700 black soldiers, proved to be the military equals of British regulars.

August 1778 A black battalion of over 300 slaves, promised their freedom after the war and given equal pay, fought during the unsuccessful Franco-American assault on Newport, Rhode Island. Continental Army officers dispatched by Washington to fill depleted ranks in that area had recruited them.

24 August 1778 Adjutant General Alexander Scammell reported that 755 black soldiers, scattered over 14 brigades, were enlisted in the Continental Army. The majority of black soldiers came from the New England states. Of the states outside this region, Virginia sent the largest number of black troops.

29 December 1778 During the British capture of Savannah, Georgia, 3500 regular troops under the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell overwhelmed the patriot militia of 1000 men. Quamino Dolly, an elderly black slave, aided the British by guiding them to the town.

1779 Delegates from South Carolina objected to a proposal approved by Congress authorizing the use of slaves as soldiers during the American Revolution.

14 February 1779 Slave patriot Austin Dabney won fame for his participation in the Battle of Kettle Creek, Georgia. During this clash, American militia successfully defeated a Tory brigade. Dabney was the only black who fought in this military action. The Georgia legislature freed Dabney in 1786 to prevent his master from exploiting his military fame. In 1821, legislators granted him a 112-acre farm in honor of his heroism during the Revolutionary War.

March 1779 Congress urged South Carolina and Georgia to raise 3000 black troops to be segregated into all-black units. Owners would be indemnified, and though slaves would receive no pay or bounties, they would be rewarded for their faithful service at the war’s end with freedom and $50. However, both states rejected this recommendation, despite their desperate need for soldiers.

31 May 1779 American troops commanded by General Anthony Wayne captured the British fort at Stony Point, New York. The success of this expedition was attributable to a slave named Pompey, who obtained a British password and helped capture one of the fort’s guards. He was only one of several black spies and undercover agents aiding the patriot cause during the American Revolution.

June 1779 British General Sir Henry Clinton officially promised to emancipate any male slaves who escaped to join the British militia. As the war progressed, both sides increased their recruitment of black troops.

21 June 1779 Spain declared war on England, joining France in the war raging in North America and Europe. The Spanish, however, refused to recognize American independence. Troops dispatched from Spanish Louisiana on expeditions against the British in the South and West included companies of free blacks and slaves commanded by black officers. During the successful campaign to capture Pensacola and Mobile from the British, six black officers were cited for bravery. King Carlos III later awarded medals of valor to them.

3 Sep-28 October 1779 A French fleet under the command of Admiral Jean Baptiste d’Estaing in conjunction with American forces unsuccessfully laid siege to Savannah, Georgia. More than 500 free blacks from Haiti were part of d’Estaing’s troops.

1780 Maryland was the only southern state that allowed slaves to enlist in the militia.

June 1780 An all-black unit known as the Connecticut Colonials served for over 2 years. Disbanded in November 1782, the company’s 52 free blacks and slaves were integrated with the state’s white units in the final months of the war.

23 September 1780 Two blacks aided in the capture of British spy Major John Andre, who served as adjutant general to British General Sir Henry Clinton. Three American militiamen caught him after his meeting with American turncoat General Benedict Arnold. Andre was hanged at Tappan, New York, on 2 Oct.

1781 British General Charles Cornwallis, who was forced to surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, on 19 October 1781, hired slave James Armistead to spy on the Americans. Armistead, however, was actually an undercover agent for the patriots. In recognition of his services, the Virginia legislature emancipated Armistead in 1786.

June 1781 Maryland passed legislation subjecting all free men to a military draft. A total of 750 black troops were inducted and incorporated with other troops.

1781 The New York General Assembly authorized slaves to join the military. After 3 years of service until regularly discharged, those slaves who joined would become free citizens of New York.

1782 The British in New York freed those blacks who joined British ranks before 30 Nov.

1783 Because the re-enslaving of black veterans became so widespread throughout the South, Virginia passed legislation that freed all those slaves who had served in the Revolutionary War.

3 September 1783 American and British representatives signed the Treaty of Paris, recognizing American independence and ending the American Revolution. Almost 10,000 blacks served during the war, 5000 of whom were regular soldiers in the Continental Army.

1783 North Carolina legislators recognized Edward Griffin’s meritorious service during the Revolution by freeing him.

1791 The U.S. Congress passed legislation excluding blacks and Native Americans from the peacetime militia.

May 1792 Additional legislation adopted by Congress restricted enlistment in the militia to white male citizens. All of the state militia laws also reflected the same restriction. Among the reasons cited by later scholars for this decision were white fears about slave rebellions; the misguided belief that African Americans either could not or would not fight; concern that black military service would cause unwanted social changes; and the notion that the arming of blacks indicated the failure of white troops.

1798 Secretary of War James McHenry and Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert issued separate directives prohibiting the enlistment of blacks for use on warships of the newly established U.S. Navy or in the recently created U.S. Marine Corps. These decisions reversed the non-racial enlistment policy that had been in effect since the Revolutionary War.

1798 Despite earlier efforts to exclude them from the military, blacks served during the undeclared naval war with France. The earlier restriction was never enacted because of the Navy’s continual need for personnel. The hard lot of sailors in this period and the difficulty of enlisting experience seaman left recruiters little choice but to open the service to anyone, regardless of race.

22 June 1807 Three of the four sailors forcibly removed by the British after the H.M.S. Leopard fired on the U.S.S. Chesapeake were black. They were identified as William Ware, Daniel Martin and John Strachan. The volatile incident began when the British frigate halted the U.S. ship just outside the 3-mile limit off the coast of Virginia to demand the return of the alleged deserters. The British killed 3 Americans and wounded 18, but only 1 of the sailors removed from the Chesapeake, a white man named John Wilson, was later proven to be a deserter. Britain returned two of the black sailors to the United States, but the third died in England.

1812-1815 Free blacks and slaves served during the War of 1812. The British once again recruited slaves for their Navy as well as armed escaped slaves in Florida and various Indian tribes.

1812 Louisiana permitted free blacks to serve in the state militia.

3 March 1813 The U.S. Navy officially authorized the enlistment of free blacks, because of continuing manpower shortages.

10 September 1813 African Americans fought during the Battle of Lake Erie, a significant U.S. victory during the War of 1812. About 10 to 25 percent of Admiral Oliver H. Perry’s men were black.

2 August 1814 Almost 1000 blacks in New York City helped to fortify the Brooklyn Heights approach guarding the town from British attack.

September 1814 White leaders in Philadelphia requested aid from two black preachers to help organize the city’s defense after British troops attacked Washington, D.C. Black workers helped to refortify the west bank of the Schuylkill River south of town.

11 September 1814 Black soldiers participated in the American victory at Plattsburg, New York, where U.S. regular troops and militia manned field fortifications protecting the road to the Hudson Valley and New York City.

21 September 1814 General Andrew Jackson issued a proclamation urging the "Free Colored Inhabitants of Louisiana" to volunteer for service in his army. Black recruits were offered equal pay and the same bounty in money and lands as white volunteers. Those blacks who joined were organized into segregated units with white officers and black noncommissioned officers.

October 1814 The New York legislature authorized the formation of two black militia regiments headed by white officers. Those free blacks who enlisted received equal pay, while slaves who joined with their masters’ permission were freed at the war’s end.

8 January 1815 Two battalions of 430 black soldiers fought with General Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans, two weeks after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed, ending the War of 1812. Black troops from the West Indies also fought for the British.

3 March 1815 Congress passed legislation creating a postwar army of 10,000 men, but no blacks were recruited. Later that year, the War Department issued a memorandum that included disparaging remarks about African Americans.

1816 The U.S. Navy officially excluded slaves from serving on board ships or in shipyards.

Nov-December 1817 U.S. troops destroyed the Negro Fort on the Apalachicola River in Spanish Florida. Manned primarily by escaped slaves, the fortification had been used to continue attacks on the Americans after the War of 1812.

1818 Blacks fought with the Seminoles against the U.S. Army during both the First and Second Seminole Wars. In the latter conflict, the Seminoles and their black allies held off their white adversaries from 1835 to 1843. Although ultimately defeated, it cost the U.S. government $40 million and 1800 lives to finally subdue this group of intrepid fighters.

1820 Congress prohibited the enlistment of blacks or mulattos in the U.S. Army. This was reinforced by a subsequent regulation issued by the Army in 1821, limiting service to free white males. The state militias instituted similar restrictions.

1830 Ohio passed a law excluding African Americans from serving in the state militia.

1831 Greenbury Logan, one of the first blacks to settle in Texas, was one of the few African Americans who fought for the Lone Star Republic’s independence from Mexico.

1836 Over 300 men defending Goliad, Texas, were slaughtered by Mexican troops after laying down their arms. Included among the dead was fifer Peter Allen, a black musician who served with Captain Wyatt’s Company.

1839 In response to white complaints about the use of black sailors, the U.S. Navy imposed a quota limiting African Americans to five percent of the service’s total personnel.

1842 South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun introduced a bill to prohibit blacks from serving in the Navy, except as menial labor. Although passed by the Senate, the House never brought the bill to a vote.

24 April 1846 The excuse for war needed by President James K. Polk after Mexico refused to negotiate with John Slidell came with a minor skirmish on this date. Mexican cavalry clashed with U.S. troops blockading a Mexican town. Only a few African Americans served during the Mexican-American War, because of the increasing racial prejudice and growing North-South split over the slavery issue. They were present unofficially with the Army as personal servants of white officers and in other support roles. Officially, at least 1000 black sailors served on board U.S. ships blockading Mexican harbors during the conflict.

A CHRONOLOGY OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN MILITARY SERVICE
From the Civil War to World War I

The opening shots of the Civil War fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, on 12 April 1861 once again raised questions on both sides of the conflict about the feasibility and wisdom of using African Americans and Native Americans in a combat role. From the beginning of the armed clash, both sides used African Americans for a variety of essential but oftentimes menial support tasks. But neither side expected the war to last long enough to warrant the use of nonwhite combatants. What ultimately tipped the scales in favor of black participation was this first truly modern war’s seemingly insatiable demand for manpower, along with President Abraham Lincoln’s decision to transform the conflict from a fight to preserve the Union into a crusade to abolish slavery.

Though initially denied the right to bear arms in the first year of the Civil War, by the end of 1862 black soldiers were fighting for the Union. Volunteer units from different states, along with the U.S. Colored Troops, went on to serve with distinction throughout the Civil War. Black soldiers won a total of 15 Congressional Medals of Honor, while another 7 African-American sailors were also honored for their heroism. By January 1864, even Confederate officers began to appreciate the need for recruiting blacks for military service. The southern civilian leadership, however, opposed the idea until the final months of the war. By the time President Jefferson Davis signed a bill on 13 March 1865 authorizing the enlistment of slaves beginning 3 April, it was too late to save the Confederacy.

After General Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House on 9 April 1865, many of the Union’s all-black units began to muster out. Several other black units, however, remained on duty in the south during the Reconstruction period. The permanent presence of blacks in the peacetime military seemed assured by the formation of state militias allowing African Americans to serve, and the passage of federal legislation in 1866 that reorganized the armed forces and permitted blacks to enlist in the Regular Army. By 1869, the U.S. Army had four all-black units: the 9^th and 10^th Cavalry as well as the 24^th and 25^th Infantry regiments (the latter consolidated from four infantry regiments established earlier). In the more than half century from 1865 to 1916, members of these Regular Army units repeatedly proved their prowess in the Indian Wars of 1867-1891, the Spanish-American War (1898), the Philippines Insurrection (1899-1901), and Pershing’s punitive expedition into Mexico in 1916. African- American soldiers and sailors again won respect and recognition for their heroism by winning several Congressional Medals of Honor as well as laudatory comments from senior officers and the press.

Despite their loyalty, bravery, and ability to endure under adverse conditions, African-American military men suffered many indignities because of racial discrimination. During the Civil War, blacks confronted inequalities in pay, length of enlistment, quality of weaponry and medical services, and promotional opportunities. By the end of the 19^th century and the beginning of the 20^th, "Jim Crow" discrimination and white contempt for blacks were increasingly reflected in the military environment. One of the worst insults given to African-American servicemen involved unfounded white doubts about black servicemen’s fighting abilities and dedication to duty. As they had demonstrated time and again, when confronted with the enemy, black soldiers fought bravely because they were Americans, not because of their skin color or ethnic heritage.

The adverse conditions and discrimination that were part of the black military experience in the period between the Civil War and America’s entry into World War I in 1917 grew worse as the new century progressed. Black troops had to put up with substandard housing, equipment, and food. The difficulties experienced by African Americans who aspired to military command prohibited all but a handful of black officers from being commissioned. Numerous restrictions were placed on African-American servicemen concerning assigned duties and promotional opportunities. As the nation’s armed forces modernized, blacks were excluded from the more technical areas. The official reason cited for these discriminatory practices was the lack of technical skill and general intelligence among black soldiers. Inevitably, such racist attitudes had a negative impact on the morale of the affected troops. Racially spawned clashes occurred more frequently between black soldiers and the communities surrounding the posts where African Americans were assigned, and at times escalated into serious riots, usually resulting in additional problems for the black troops. Racial tension in the armed forces and throughout the nation reached critical levels in the years preceding the outbreak of World War I.

But African Americans continued to join both the U.S. Army and Navy between 1898 and 1917, even though both services were beginning to cut back on the number of black recruits. In spite of the increasing racism, many black men still viewed the military as a place where they could prove their individual ability and worth in service to their country. They also hoped to win greater social participation for all blacks through their military sacrifice. Unfortunately these hopes were not realized for most African Americans in the early years of the 20^th century where "Jim Crow" held sway. Yet when the call to arms came on 2 April 1917, African Americans again stood ready to give their lives for the freedom usually denied them.

New Orleans Native Guard

Contrabands, Camp Brightwood. Washington, D.C., ca. 1863

Harriet Tubman

Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers of the Second Battalion, Virginia Volunteers

Black soldiers in action at Island Mound

Jefferson Davis

Lewis Douglass

William Carney

Ulysses S. Grant

Fort Pillow

Robert E. Lee

McClean House, Appomattox Court House, VA

9th Cavalry

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Buffalo Soldiers

1861 Free blacks throughout the North petitioned President Lincoln for the right to bear arms, but their service was not accepted until later in the Civil War.

April 1861 The free blacks of New Orleans, Louisiana, began organizing a Native Guard battalion with officers of their own race. The state government approved this action and commissioned the black officers. The commanding general of the white and black troops sent a telegram to Confederate authorities in November 1861 because he was "elated at the success of being first to place negroes in the field together with white troops…." Since their first duty was to defend New Orleans, the Native Guards refused to serve elsewhere for the Confederacy once Union forces captured the city. Many of the men later fought for the Union.

15 April 1861 President Abraham Lincoln declared a state of insurrection and called for 75,000 volunteers to serve for 3 months. At this time, the Union Army officially rejected black volunteers. Lincoln did not want to risk antagonizing the Border States or the Butternut Region; many northern whites did not think it appropriate for blacks to fight a "white man’s war;" and most whites (including the president) did not think blacks would be good soldiers. However, the Secretary of the Navy authorized the enlistment of escaped slaves.

June 1861 The Tennessee legislature authorized the governor "to receive into the military service of the State all male free persons of color, between the age of 15 and 50, who should receive $8 per month, clothing and rations." If an insufficient number of blacks joined voluntarily, provisions were also included allowing officials "to press such persons until the requisite number is obtained."

6 August 1861 In an attempt to keep the Confederates from using slaves for military labor, the U.S. Congress passed legislation making it legal to confiscate any property (including slaves) used to aid the rebels.

September 1861 The Secretary of the Navy authorized the enlistment of blacks into the U.S. Navy. Although previously barred from service in the U.S. Army or Marine Corps, "Negroes were readily accepted all along the coast on board the war vessels, it being no departure from the regular and established practice in the service." By the end of the Civil War, traditional figures show that about 25 percent of Union sailors were African Americans, but more recent figures indicate that perhaps only 8 percent of the Navy’s total manpower was black.

1862 Harriet Tubman, probably the most well known "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, served as a nurse, cook, and laundress to Union troops in South Carolina. She also supported the Union cause as a spy, scout, and guerilla leader. In June 1863, she led Union troops in a raid along the Combahee River. Described as "the only American woman to lead troops, black or white, on the field of battle," she and men under the command of Colonel James Montgomery freed 750 to 800 slaves, confiscated property worth thousands of dollars, and destroyed several million dollars of commissary stores and cotton.

May 1862 Major General David C. Hunter pioneered the recruiting of blacks by organizing the 1^st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry at Beaufort. The War Department disrupted this effort until the end of August 1862. Although not officially called to active duty until 31 January 1863, Company A of Hunter’s 1^st South Carolina was unofficially the very first unit of former slaves permitted to join the Union Army. It was redesignated the 33^rd Regiment of the U.S. Colored Troops (USCT) in February 1864. It mustered out in January 1866.

June 1862 Flamboyant Kansas Senator James H. Lane began recruiting troops from the growing number of black fugitives who escaped or were liberated from their masters in Missouri and Arkansas. Known as the 1^st Kansas Colored Volunteer Infantry, unit members wore red silk pantaloons and wool jackets. By late August there were 500 ex-slaves camped outside Leavenworth, trained and ready to do battle. The unit would later become known as the 79^th Infantry Regiment, USCT.

July 1862 The U.S. Congress passed the Militia Act, which authorized the president to use black troops in combat. Lincoln, however, continued to use black manpower primarily in a support role as laborers, kitchen workers, nurses, scouts or spies. Although the figures vary, at least 186,000 African Americans eventually served in the Union Army, while another 30,000 blacks enlisted in the Navy. Several thousand others also supported the war effort as laborers. At least 68,000 blacks were killed or wounded during the Civil War.

25 August 1862 After the disastrous Peninsular Campaign, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton ordered Brigadier General Rufus Saxton to organize 5000 black troops who were to receive equal pay and rations with whites.

September 1862 General Benjamin F. Butler in the Department of the Gulf began recruiting blacks for service in the segregated Louisiana Native Guard regiments. The line officers of the 1^st and 2^nd Regiments were black, while the field officers were white. The 3^rd Regiment was "officered regardless of color." Composed of free men and former slaves, beginning on 27 September 1862, these three units became the first all-black regiments officially mustered into Union Army ranks.

27-28 October 1862 The first use of black troops in combat during the Civil War involved a 225-man detachment from the 1^st Kansas Colored Volunteer Infantry, who fought in a 2-day engagement at Island Mound, Missouri. A total of 10 men were killed and 12 were wounded. Contemporary accounts of the battle praised the black soldiers’ martial skills and bravery.

23 December 1862 Confederate President Jefferson Davis "raised the black flag" against the North by signing a proclamation ordering the execution of any white Union officers of black troops. In addition, "all negro slaves captured in arms" were to be turned over to the authorities "of the respective States to which they belong, and…dealt with according to the laws of said States." This decision was subsequently endorsed in May 1863 by a resolution passed by the Confederate Congress. After the massacre at Fort Pillow in April 1864 (see separate entry), President Lincoln responded by announcing an equal exchange of executions and hard labor sentences for Confederate officers and enlisted men being held prisoner by the Union.

1863 Secretary of War Stanton ordered that black volunteers be paid at a lower rate than white volunteers, because blacks were considered to be auxiliaries. Instead of the $13 per month paid white troops, regardless if they were volunteers or regular army, African Americans were paid $10, less a $3 deduction for clothing. Many black regiments refused to accept the lesser amount. In addition to less pay initially, African Americans also faced other forms of discrimination: longer enlistment periods, little chance for promotion, inadequate medical care, inferior weapons, and usually no prisoner-of-war status.

1863 The 9^th Regiment USCT composed the first known battle hymn by black soldiers, "They Look Like Men of War."

1 January 1863 Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, a preliminary version of which was first announced to the public in September 1862, went into effect on this date. Provisions for the use of black troops were included in the document. The preliminary statement had opened the armed forces to Confederate slaves who were able to escape and make their way to Union lines.

9 February 1863 In response to Lincoln’s proclamation and with the federal government’s permission, Governor John A. Andrew of Massachusetts ordered the organization of the all-black 54^th Massachusetts Regiment. On 21 February 1863, the first 25 volunteers were organized at Camp Meigs, Readville, Massachusetts. Because of problems enlisting enough black volunteers only from New England, the recruitment area was expanded to encompass the entire Union and its territories. Help from black and white abolitionists, most notably Frederick Douglass, also helped Massachusetts attract the necessary numbers of African Americans. After being involved in a number of significant campaigns during the war, members of the regiment mustered out in August 1865.

3 March 1863 Congress passed the first national Conscription Act, requiring the enlistment of males between 20 and 45. Substitutes or a payment of $300 could be used for exemption. Although the new law did not exclude African Americans, resentment against the act erupted into violence against blacks who were accused of starting the Civil War. During the four days from 13 to 16 July 1863, primarily Irish-Americans and other poorer men hit hard by the new act, participated in draft riots in New York City, destroying property and lynching blacks. Federal troops were called in to restore order.

14 March 1863 During the Battle of Port Hudson (the last Confederate fort on the lower Mississippi River), five all-black Louisiana regiments sustained severe losses in the unsuccessful Union assault on the fortification. Although a Union defeat, the black troops received considerable praise for their gallantry and determination under fire.

May 1863 The 55^th Massachusetts Regiment was organized.

May 1863 Pennsylvania established Camp William Penn to train black enlistees.

1 May 1863 Major General Nathaniel P. Banks issued General Orders No. 40, organizing the Corps d’Afrique in Louisiana. It was originally planned that the Corps would consist of 18 regiments representing infantry, artillery, and cavalry.

22 May 1863 General Order No. 143 established the Bureau of Colored Troops. Between 178,000 and 200,000 ex-slaves, free blacks, and white officers served under this organization.

28 May 1863 The 54^th Massachusetts embarked for South Carolina.

6 June 1863 General Order No. 47 redesignated the 1^st to 4^th Regiments of the Louisiana Native Guards as the 1^st to 4^th Regiments of Infantry of the Corps d’Afrique. Black officers of the first three regiments were displaced by whites.

28 June 1863 Black troops with the small Union garrison at Milliken’s Bend (near Vicksburg, Mississippi) again proved their military mettle in ferocious hand-to-hand combat until the attacking Confederate force was driven off by the Union warship Choctaw.

July 1863 General Quincy A. Gillmore ordered that no distinction be made among troops in his command.

18 July 1863 Probably the best known of the all-black regiments mustered during the Civil War, the 54^th Massachusetts earned widespread fame for its unsurpassed bravery during the assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina. The unit’s white commanding officer, Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, and 116 enlisted men died in the unsuccessful attempt to take the Confederate fort. Another 156 members of the 54^th were wounded or captured during this battle. Union forces finally occupied Fort Wagner on 6 September 1863, after it had been evacuated by the Confederates.

18 July 1863 Sergeant William H. Carney’s bravery under fire during the assault on Fort Wagner earned him the Congressional Medal of Honor. He was the first African American to receive this prestigious award. Another 14 black soldiers were also honored with this medal for their heroism during the Civil War.

August 1863 Iowa authorities began enlisting blacks as part of the state’s quota. On 11 Oct, nine full companies, designated the 1^st African Descent Regiment Iowa Volunteers, were mustered into the Union Army.

24 August 1863 In a letter to the Adjutant General, General Ulysses S. Grant noted that, "The Negro troops are easier to preserve discipline among than are our white troops, and I doubt not will prove equally good for garrison duty. All that have been tried have fought bravely." These sentiments echoed those expressed the day before in a letter to President Lincoln where Grant stated, "By arming the Negro we have added a powerful ally. They will make good soldiers…."

29 August 1863 Because of a lack of black enthusiasm for enlisting after General Banks’ changes creating the Corps d’Afrique, the Army issued General Order 64. It assigned responsibility to the Provost Marshal General for conscripting "all able-bodied men of color" into the Corps d’Afrique. Strict guidelines governing the behavior of Corps soldiers were also established.

17 September 1863 General Quincy A. Gillmore issued General Order No. 77 prohibiting the use of black troops "to prepare camps and perform menial duty for white troops."

2 January 1864 Officers in the Confederate Army of Tennessee proposed recruiting blacks for military service in exchange for freedom. Confederate leaders rejected the suggestion at this time.

8 January 1864 Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts introduced a bill to encourage army enlistments. A measure to redress the pay inequity between black and white volunteers was also included.

11 March 1864 Massachusetts Governor John A. Andrew commissioned First Sergeant Stephen A. Swails as Second Lieutenant, Company F, 54^th Massachusetts. Andrew subsequently promoted two more black sergeants to second lieutenants, and within 3 weeks both men were promoted to first lieutenant. Another eight sergeants in the 55^th Massachusetts were also commissioned as second lieutenants, but only three actually mustered in as officers.

April 1864 The 1^st Regiment Corps d’Afrique was renamed the 7^th Regiment USCT. It was redesignated the 10^th Regiment USCT the following month. In October 1865, the 77^th Regiment Infantry was consolidated with the 10^th. In addition, all of the other Corps d’Afrique units were eventually redesignated as USCT regiments.

13 April 1864 After the Union surrender at Fort Pillow, Kentucky, troops under the command of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest massacred about 300 unarmed white and black soldiers.

18 April 1864 Union Major General Frederick Steele, during a diversionary campaign south of Little Rock, Arkansas, sent a party of 1000 troops on a foraging expedition. Among Steele’s troops was the 1^st Kansas Colored Infantry. While returning from their successful quest for supplies, the detachment encountered a significantly larger Confederate force at Poison Spring. After intense fighting, the Confederates prevailed. The 1^st Kansas sustained very heavy losses in this skirmish—117 killed out of 182 men who fought (64 percent). Many of the fatalities were the result of intense racial hatred. The Confederates and their Choctaw allies killed the African-American soldiers as they attempted to surrender or as they laid wounded on the battlefield.

15 June 1864 After months of debate, Congress passed a law giving African Americans equal pay, arms, equipment, and medical services. This same legislation also freed the enslaved wives and children of black soldiers serving with Union forces.

19 June 1864 Joachim Pease won the Congressional Medal of Honor. A black seaman who was the loader of the number one gun, Pease served on the USS Kearsarge, which sank the Confederate raider Alabama off the coast of France on this date. He was one of seven black sailors to be so honored for their heroism during the Civil War.

1 August 1864 The War Department ruled that black troops would be given full pay retroactive to 1 January 1864, provided they were free men on 19 April 1861.

5 August 1864 During the Battle of Mobile Bay, John Lawson, a black landsman on the USS Hartford, emerged as a hero when he continued to man his duty station despite serious injury. His action kept Union guns operative. He was later awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor.

September 1864 General William T. Sherman wrote to Washington authorities to protest the organization of black troops in his department. Years later, however, he wrote to Secretary of War James D. Cameron, advising him to remove the word "black" from military regulations and urging him to integrate the armed forces.

November-December 1864 Despite his earlier letter, black troops actively participated in Sherman’s March to the Sea. They served as members of the raiding parties and expeditions sent out to intercept and disrupt Confederate communications as well as to destroy railroads and military stores.

December 1864 The 1^st Regiment Kansas Volunteers was redesignated the 79^th Regiment USCT.

1865 President Lincoln made Martin R. Delany a major, the first African American to be commissioned at this rank in the U.S. Army. He also approved Delany’s plan for placing a black regiment in the field, but the Civil War ended before it could be implemented. Delany was also a well known advocate for the establishment of a black nation in the American west or in Africa.

1865 Lincoln proposed giving the vote to blacks who were either Civil War veterans or educated. Although not enacted at this time, the right of African-American males to vote was eventually embodied in the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was ratified on 3 February 1870.

18 February 1865 General Robert E. Lee again agreed with plans to arm free blacks and ex-slaves to fight for the Confederacy. In a letter on this date, he wrote, "…with reference to the employment of negroes as soldiers[,] I think the measure not only expedient but necessary…. [I]n my opinion, under proper circumstances the negroes will make efficient soldiers." In an earlier letter of 11 January 1865, Lee recommended a special inducement to convince slaves to fight. "Such an interest we can give our negroes by granting immediate freedom to all who enlist, and freedom at the end of the war to the families of those who discharge their duties faithfully, whether they survive or not…."

3 March 1865 Since most African Americans serving with Union forces were not free men before 19 April 1861, many units used mild subterfuge to guarantee them full pay. Consequently, protests about the inequity of the earlier legislation continued to surface. On this date, however, Congress finally put the issue to rest when it authorized equal pay for all black soldiers retroactive to their actual dates of enlistment.

13 March 1865 Confederate President Jefferson Davis signed legislation authorizing the enlistment of up to 300,000 slaves, who would be emancipated if they honorably discharged their duties.

3 April 1865 The day appointed to begin the drafting of slaves for military service came too late to save the Confederacy. The war ended in a Union victory less than a week later.

9 April 1865 Black troops were among the Union forces at Appomattox Court House when General Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia. African-American soldiers had fought in all of the significant campaigns in the Petersburg-Richmond area that helped to bring the Civil War to a close.

11-14 May 1865 The last battle of the Civil War was fought in Texas near the Rio Grande. African-American troops from the 62^nd U.S. Colored Infantry Regiment and white soldiers from the 2^nd Texas Cavalry Regiment and the 34^th Indiana Volunteer Infantry participated in the fighting which took place between White’s Ranch and Palmeto Ranch.

1866 Soon after the Regular Army established its black regiments, 22 states and the District of Columbia organized similar National Guard units. Reconstruction governments in the South recruited large numbers of African Americans to help maintain order and ensure Republican control, but black communities throughout the North and Midwest took the lead in getting the new units organized in those areas. One major difference between the state and federal units was the commissioning of African Americans as company and field grade officers in the National Guard.

1-3 May 1866 During 3 days of racial violence in Memphis, Tennessee, white civilians and police killed 46 African Americans and injured numerous others. At least two whites were also killed. In addition, mobs burned 90 houses, 12 schools, and 4 churches. The establishment of Fort Pickering, a post for black troops, and the use of black soldiers to patrol the city contributed to the tension that erupted into one of the bloodiest riots of the Reconstruction Era. It was only one of several violent outbreaks in the South that helped Radical Republicans win support for their own plan of Military Reconstruction.

28 July 1866 Radical Republicans in Congress pushed through legislation allowing blacks to serve in the armed forces during peacetime. In the resulting reorganization, the U.S. Army established 67 regiments, 6 of which were all black. There were two cavalry (the 9^th and 10^th) and four infantry (the 38^th, 39^th, 40^th and 41^st) units, each containing about 1000 men. Blacks were excluded from the five artillery units, because white leaders believed African Americans did not have the required technical skills. Most of the blacks who enlisted in the reorganized U.S. Army were Civil War veterans.

1869 The Army reorganized its black infantry units, combining the original four regiments into two—the 24^th and 25^th Infantry. They, along with the 9^th and 10^th Cavalry, saw action in the ongoing Indian wars that troubled the West between 1865 and 1898. During this period of service, the Native Americans began referring to the black troopers as "buffalo soldiers." This nickname was derived partly from the soldiers’ physical characteristics (i.e., dark skin and tightly curled hair) which were reminiscent of the buffalo, and partly from the Indian warriors’ respect for the black troopers’ fighting abilities.

1869 Robert Brown Elliot served as adjutant general of South Carolina, with responsibility for establishing a state militia to protect black and white citizens from the Ku Klux Klan. The following year, he became the first black general to command the South Carolina National Guard.